Education began in the earliest prehistory, as adults trained the young in the

knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society. In

preliterate societies this achieved orally and through imitation. 【M1】__________

Story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation

to the next. As cultures began to extend its knowledge beyond skills that 【M2】__________

could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed.

Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom.

Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institute of higher 【M3】__________

learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in

around 331 BCE, became the successor of Athens as the intellectual 【M4】__________

cradle of Ancient Greece. There, mathematician Euclid and anatomist

Herophilus constructed the great Library of Alexandria and translated

the Hebrew Bible into Greek. European civilizations suffered a collapse

of literacy and organization followed the fall of Rome in 476 AD. 【M5】__________

In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was the

country’s the most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational 【M6】__________

outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbors like

Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Confucius gathered disciples and searched

in vain for a ruler would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his 【M7】__________

analects were written down by followers and had continued to influence 【M8】__________

education in East Asia into the modern era.

After the fall of Rome,the Catholic Church became the sole

observer of literate scholarship in Western Europe.The church 【M9】__________

established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of

advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately involved 【M10】_________

into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe’s modern

universities.

The fact that experiences influence subsequent behavior is evidence

of an obvious but nevertheless remarkable activity called remembering.

Learning could not occur without the function popularly named

memory. Constant practice has such an effect on memory as to lead to

skillful performance on piano, to recitation of a poem, and even to 【M1】__________

reading and understanding these words. So-called intelligent behavior

demands memory, remembering being a primary requirement for

reasoning. The ability to solve any problem or even to recognize that a

problem exists and depends on memory. Typically, the decision to cross 【M2】__________

a street is based on remembering many early experiences. 【M3】__________

Practice (or review) tends to build and maintain memory for a task

or for any learned material. Over a period of no practice that has been 【M4】__________

learned tends to be forgotten; and the adaptive consequences may not

seem obvious. Yet, dramatic instances of sudden forgetting can be seen to

be adaptive. In this sense, the ability to forget can be interpreted to

have survived through a process of natural selection of animals. Indeed, 【M5】__________

when one’s memory of an emotional painful experience leads to serious 【M6】__________

anxiety, forgetting may produce relief. Nevertheless, an evolutionary

interpretation might make it difficult to understand how the commonly

gradual process of forgetting survived natural selection.

In thinking about the evolution of memory together with all their 【M7】__________

possible aspects, it is helpful to consider what would happen if

memories failed to fade. Forgetting clearly aids orientation in time,

since old memories weaken and the new tends to stand out, 【M8】__________

provide clues for inferring duration. Without forgetting, adaptive ability 【M9】__________

would suffer, for example, learned behavior that should have been 【M10】_________

correct a decade ago may no longer be.

Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language which focuses on

the effect of language on society. It overlaps to a considerate degree 【M1】__________

with pragmatics. It is historically closely related to linguistic

anthropology, and the distinction between the two fields have even been 【M2】__________

questioned recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between

groups separating by certain social variables and how creation and 【M3】__________

adherence with these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or 【M4】__________

socioeconomic classes. With the usage of a language varies from place to 【M5】__________

place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is these

sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.

The social aspects of language were in the modern sense firstly 【M6】__________

studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by Louis

Gauchat in Switzerland in early 1900s, but none received much attention 【M7】__________

in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation of

language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave

model of the lately 19th century. The first attested use of the term 【M8】__________

sociolinguistics was by Thomas Callan Hodson in the title of his 1939

article “ Sociolinguistics in India” published in Man in India.

Sociolinguistics in the West first appeared in the 1960s and pioneered by 【M9】__________

linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK.

In the 1960s, William Stewart and Heinz Kloss introduced the basic

concepts for the sociolinguistic theory of pluricentric languages, which

describes what standard language varieties differ between nations. 【M10】_________